| Chapter
12 - Environmental Considerations
In today’s Army, soldiers may deploy
anywhere in the world. They may go into the tropical heat of Central America,
the deserts of the Middle East, the frozen tundra of Alaska, or the rolling hills
of Western Europe. Each environment presents unique problems concerning soldiers’
physical performance. Furthermore, physical exertion in extreme environments can
be life-threatening. While recognizing such problems is important, preventing
them is even more important. This requires an understanding of the environmental
factors which affect physical performance and how the body responds to those factors.
Temperature Regulation
The body constantly produces heat, especially during exercise. To maintain a constant
normal temperature, it must pass this heat on to the environment. Life-threatening
circumstances can develop if the body becomes too hot or too cold. Body temperature
must be maintained within fairly narrow limits, usually between 74 and 110 degrees
Fahrenheit. However, hypothermia and heat injuries can occur within much narrower
limits. Therefore, extreme temperatures can have a devastating effect on the body’s
ability to control its temperature.
Overheating is a serious threat to health
and physical performance. During exercise, the body can produce heat at a rate
10 to 20 times greater than during rest. To survive, it must get rid of the excess
heat.
The four ways in which the body can gain or lose heat are the following:
•
Conduction-the transfer of heat from a warm object to a cool one that is touching
it. (Warming boots by putting them on is an example.)
• Convection-the transfer
of heat by circulation or movement of air. (Using a fan on a hot day is an example.)
•
Radiation-the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves. (Sitting under a heat
lamp is an example.)
• Evaporation- the transfer of heat by changing a liquid
into a gas. (Evaporating sweat cooling the skin is an example.)
Heat moves
from warm to cool areas. During exercise, when the body is extremely warm, heat
can be lost by a combination of the four methods. Sweating, however, is the body’s
most important means for heat loss, especially during exercise. Any condition
that slows or blocks the transfer of heat
from the body by evaporation causes
heat storage which results in an increase in body temperature.
The degree to
which evaporative cooling occurs is also directly related to the air’s relative
humidity (a measure of the amount of water vapor in the air). When the relative
humidity is 100 percent, the air is completely saturated at its temperature. No
more water can evaporate into the surrounding air. As
a result, sweat does
not evaporate, no cooling effect takes place, and the body temperature increases.
This causes even more sweating. During exercise
in the heat, sweat rates of
up to two quarts per hour are not uncommon. If the lost fluids are not replaced,
dehydration can occur. This condition, in turn, can result in severe heat injuries.
Thus,
in hot, humid conditions when a soldier’s sweat cannot evaporate, there is no
cooling effect through the process of evaporation. High relative humidities combined
with high temperatures can cause serious problems. Weather of this type occurs
in the tropics and equatorial regions such as Central America and southern Asia.
These are places where soldiers have been or could be deployed. Heat
Injuries and Symptoms
The following are common types of heat injuries
and their symptoms.
• Heat cramps-muscles cramps of the abdomen, legs,
or arms.
• Heat exhaustion-headache, excessive sweating, dizziness, nausea,
clammy skin.
• Heat stroke-hot, dry skin, cessation of sweating, rapid
pulse, mental confusion, unconsciousness.
To prevent heat injuries while exercising,
trainers must adjust the intensity to fit the temperature and humidity. They must
ensure that soldiers drink enough water before and during the exercise session.
Body weight is a good gauge of hydration. If rapid weight loss occurs, dehydration
should be suspected. Plain water is the best replacement fluid to use. Highly
concentrated liquids such as soft drinks and those with a high sugar content may
hurt the soldier’s performance because they slow the absorption of water from
the stomach.
To prevent heat injuries, the following hydration guidelines should
be used:
• Type of drink: cool water (45 to 55 degrees F).
• Before
the activity: drink 13 to 20 ounces at least 30 minutes before.
• During
the activity: drink 3 to 6 ounces at 15 to 30 minute intervals.
• After
the activity: drink to satisfy thirst, then drink a little more. Acclimation
to Hot, Humid Environments
Adapting to differing environmental conditions
is called acclimatization. Soldiers who are newly introduced to a hot, humid climate
and are moderately active in it can acclimatize in 8 to 14 days. Soldiers who
are sedentary take much longer. Until they are acclimatized, soldiers are much
more likely to develop heat injuries.
A soldier’s ability to perform effectively
in hot, humid conditions depends on both his acclimatization and level of fitness.
The degree of heat stress directly depends on the relative workload. When two
soldiers do the same task, the heat stress is less for the soldier who is in better
physical condition, and his performance is likely to be better. Therefore, it
is important to maintain high levels of fitness.
Increased temperatures and
humidity cause increased heart rates. Consequently, it takes much less effort
to elevate the heart rate into the training zone, but the training effect is the
same. These facts underscore the need to use combat-development running and to
monitor heart rates when running, especially in hot, humid conditions.
Some
important changes occur as a result of acclimatization to a hot climate. The following
physical adaptations help the body cope with a hot environment
• Sweating
occurs at a lower body temperature.
• Sweat production is increased.
•
Blood volume is increased.
• Heart rate is less at any given work rate. Exercising
in Cold Environments
Contrary to popular belief, there are few real dangers
in exercising at temperatures well below freezing. Since the body produces large
amounts of heat during exercise, it has little trouble maintaining a normal temperature.
There is no danger of freezing the lungs. However, without proper precautions,
hypothermia, frostbite, and dehydration can occur. HYPOTHERMIA
If the body’s core temperature drops below normal, its ability to regulate its
temperature can become impaired or lost. This condition is called hypothermia.
It
develops because the body cannot produce heat as fast as it is losing it. This
can lead to death. The chance of a soldier becoming hypothermic is a major threat
any time he is exposed to the cold.
Some symptoms of hypothermia are shivering,
loss of judgment, slurred speech, drowsiness, and muscle weakness.
During exercise
in the cold, people usually produce enough heat to maintain normal body temperature.
As they get fatigued, however, they slow down and
their bodies produce less
heat. Also, people often overdress for exercise in the cold. This makes the body
sweat. The sweat dampens the clothing next to
the skin making it a good conductor
of heat. The combination of decreased heat production and increased heat loss
can cause a rapid onset of hypothermia.
Some guidelines for dressing for cold
weather exercise are shown in Figure 12-1.
 FROSTBITE
Frostbite is the freezing of body tissue. It commonly occurs in body
parts located away from the core and exposed to the cold such as the nose, ears,
feet, hands, and skin. Severe cases of frostbite may require amputation.
Factors
which lead to frostbite are cold temperatures combined with windy conditions.
The wind has a great cooling effect because it causes rapid convective heat transfer
from the body. For a given temperature, the higher the wind speed, the greater
the cooling effect. Figure 12-2 shows how the wind can affect cooling by providing
information on windchill factors. A person’s movement through the air creates
an effect similar to that caused by wind. Riding a bicycle at 15 mph is the same
as standing in a 15-mph wind. If, in addition, there is a 5-mph headwind, the
overall effect is equivalent to a 20-mph wind. Therefore, an exercising soldier
must be very cautious to avoid getting frostbite. Covering exposed parts of the
body will substantially reduce the risks.
 DEHYDRATION
Dehydration can result from losing body fluids faster than they are replaced.
Cold environments are often dry, and water may be limited. As a result, soldiers
may in time become dehydrated. While operating in extremely cold climates, trainers
should check the body weights of the soldiers regularly and encourage them to
drink liquids whenever possible. Acclimatization
to High Altitudes
Elevations below 5,000 feet have little noticeable effect
on healthy people. However, at higher elevations the atmospheric pressure is reduced,
and the body tissues get less oxygen. This means that soldiers cannot work or
exercise as well at high altitudes. The limiting effects of high elevation are
often most pronounced in older soldiers and persons with low levels of fitness.
Due
to acclimatization, the longer a soldier remains at high altitude, the better
his performance becomes. Generally, however, he will not perform as well as at
sea level and should not be expected to. For normal activities, the time required
to acclimatize depends largely on the altitude. In order to insure that soldiers
who are newly assigned to altitudes above 5,000 feet are not at a disadvantage,
it is recommended that 30 days of acclimatization, including regular physical
activity, be permitted before they are administered a record APFT.
Before acclimatization
is complete, people at high altitudes may suffer acute mountain sickness. This
includes such symptoms as headache, rapid pulse, nausea, loss of appetite, and
an inability to sleep. The primary treatment is further acclimatization or returning
to a lower altitude.
Once soldiers are acclimatized to altitudes above 5,000
feet, deacclimatization will occur if they spend 14 or more days at lower altitudes.
For this reason, soldiers should be permitted twice the length of their absence,
not to exceed 30 days, to reacclimatize before being required to take a record
APFT. A period of 30 days is adequate for any given reacclimatization. Air
Pollution and Exercise
Pollutants are substances in the environment which
lower the environment’s quality. Originally, air pollutants were thought to be
only by-products of the industrial revolution. However, many pollutants are produced
naturally. For example, volcanoes emit sulfur oxides and ash, and lightning produces
ozone.
There are two classifications of air pollutants - primary and secondary.
Primary pollutants are produced directly by industrial sources. These include
carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur oxides (SO), hydrocarbons, and particulate (ash).
Secondary pollutants are created by the primary pollutant’s interaction with the
environment. Examples of these include ozone (03), aldehydes, and sulfates. Smog
is a combination of primary and secondary pollutants.
Some pollutants have
negative effects on the body. For example, carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin
in the red blood cells and reduces the amount of oxygen carried in the blood.
Ozone and the oxides irritate the air passageways in the lungs, while other pollutants
irritate the eyes.
When exercisers in high-pollution areas breathe through
the mouth, the nasal mucosa’s ability to remove impurities is bypassed, and many
pollutants can be inhaled. This irritates the respiratory tract and makes the
person less able to perform aerobically.
The following are some ways to deal
with air pollution while exercising:
• Avoid exposure to pollutants before
and during exercise, if possible.
• In areas of high ozone concentration, train
early in the day and after dark.
• Avoid exercising near heavily traveled streets
and highways during rush hours.
• Consult your supporting preventive-medicine
activity for advice in identifying or defining training restrictions during periods
of heavy air pollution. |
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